Corresponding Author: Pascal Geldsetzer, MBChB, ScD, MPH, Division of Primary Care and Population Health, Department of Medicine, Stanford University, 1265 Welch Rd, Stanford, CA 94305 (pgeldsetzer@stanford.edu).
Accepted for Publication: August 10, 2020.
Author Contributions: Ms Lemp and Dr Geldsetzer had full access to all of the data in the study and take responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis.
Concept and design: Lemp, De Neve, Ebert, Tsabedze-Sibanyoni, Martins, Vollmer, Bärnighausen, Geldsetzer.
Acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data: All authors.
Drafting of the manuscript: Lemp, Manne-Goehler, Tsabedze-Sibanyoni, Davies, Geldsetzer.
Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content: All authors.
Statistical analysis: Lemp, De Neve, Chen, Ebert, Gathecha, Bärnighausen, Geldsetzer.
Obtained funding: Manne-Goehler, Geldsetzer.
Administrative, technical, or material support: Bussmann, Chen, Manne-Goehler, Theilmann, Marcus, Tsabedze-Sibanyoni, Kibachio, Moghaddam, Martins, Gurung, Farzadfar, Bärnighausen.
Supervision: Sturua, Farzadfar, Davies, Vollmer, Bärnighausen, Geldsetzer.
Other - Review of results and policy implications of the results: Atun.
Other - Data visualization: Probst.
Conflict of Interest Disclosures: Dr Dryden-Peterson reported receiving personal fees from UpToDate Inc outside the submitted work. No other disclosures were reported.
Funding/Support: Dr Tsabedze-Sibanyoni reported receiving grants from the WHO and nonfinancial support from Eswatini Ministry of Health during the conduct of the study. Dr Bärnighausen was supported by the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation through the Alexander von Humboldt Professor award, funded by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research; the German Research Foundation; the Wellcome Trust; and by grants R01-HD084233 from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, P01-AG041710 from the National Institute on Aging, R01-AI124389 and R01-AI112339 from the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, and D43-TW009775 from the Fogarty International Center, all of the of National Institutes of Health. Dr Geldsetzer was supported by grant KL2TR003143 from the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences of the National Institutes of Health. Dr De Neve was supported by the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation. Dr Manne-Goehler was supported by grant T32 AI007433 from the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. This study uses data from multiple STEPS surveys (as specified in the Table), which were implemented by the respective Ministry of Health with the support of the WHO. This study uses data from WHO’s Study on Global Ageing and Adult Health (SAGE). SAGE is supported by the US National Institute on Aging through Interagency Agreements OGHA 04034785; YA1323-08-CN-0020; Y1-AG-1005-0, and through research grants R01-AG034479 and R21-AG034263. This study is also based on data from Eurostat, European Health Survey 2014.
Role of the Funder/Sponsor: Funders had no role in the design and conduct of the study; collection, management, analysis, and interpretation of the data; preparation, review, or approval of the manuscript; and decision to submit the manuscript for publication.
Additional Contributions: We thank each of the survey teams and study participants who made this analysis possible, the Sri Lankan Department of Census and Statistics for providing us with data from the Sri Lanka 2016 DHS survey, and Anju Ranjit, MD, MPH, Howard University Hospital, for providing us with data from the Nepal 2014 SOSAS survey for which she was not compensated.
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