Corresponding Author: Stephen T. Higgins, PhD, Department of Psychiatry, University of Vermont, 1 S Prospect St, UHC, MS482, Burlington, VT 05401 (stephen.higgins@uvm.edu).
Accepted for Publication: May 29, 2021.
Published Online: August 4, 2021. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2021.1969
Correction: This article was corrected on January 26, 2022, to fix errors in the Figures and on September 27, 2023, to fix an incorrect quiz answer.
Open Access: This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the CC-BY License. © 2021 Bolívar HA et al. JAMA Psychiatry.
Author Contributions: Dr Bolívar and Mr DeSarno had full access to all of the data in the study and take responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis.
Concept and design: Bolívar, Coleman, Higgins.
Acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data: All authors.
Drafting of the manuscript: Bolívar, Klemperer, Coleman, Higgins.
Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content: All authors.
Statistical analysis: DeSarno, Skelly, Higgins.
Obtained funding: Higgins.
Administrative, technical, or material support: Bolívar, Klemperer.
Supervision: Bolívar, Higgins.
Conflict of Interest Disclosures: Drs Coleman, Higgins, and Klemperer have research support from the National Institute of General Medical Sciences and the National Institute on Drug Abuse. No other disclosures were reported.
Funding/Support: This project was supported by a Centers of Biomedical Research Excellence award from the National Institute on General Medical Sciences (P20GM103644) and Institutional Training award from the National Institute on Drug Abuse (T32DA007242).
Role of the Funder/Sponsor: The funders had no role in the design and conduct of the study; collection, management, analysis, and interpretation of the data; preparation, review, or approval of the manuscript; and decision to submit the manuscript for publication.
Disclaimer: The content of this report is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institute of General Medical Sciences and the National Institute on Drug Abuse.
Meeting Presentation: Data from this project were presented at the National Institute of Health’s Helping to End Addiction Long-term (HEAL) Meeting—Opioid Use in the Context of Polysubstance Use: Research Opportunities for Prevention, Treatment, and Sustained Recovery meeting; April 14, 2021; virtual and HEAL Principal Investigators Meeting; May 18, 2021; virtual.
Additional Contributions: We extend deep appreciation to Tyler D. Nighbor, PhD, for his help developing and conducting the initial search for relevant literature. Dr Nighbor was not compensated.