Accepted for Publication: June 4, 2022.
Published: July 26, 2022. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.23708
Open Access: This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the CC-BY License. © 2022 Chen AY et al. JAMA Network Open.
Corresponding Author: Bradley D. Stein, MD, PhD, RAND Corporation, 4570 Fifth Ave, Ste 600, Pittsburgh, PA 15213 (stein@rand.org).
Author Contributions: Dr Chen had full access to all the data in the study and takes responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis.
Concept and design: Powell.
Acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data: All authors.
Drafting of the manuscript: Chen, Powell.
Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content: Powell, Stein.
Statistical analysis: Chen, Powell.
Obtained funding: Stein.
Administrative, technical, or material support: Stein.
Supervision: Powell.
Conflict of Interest Disclosures: Dr Chen reported receiving grants from the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) during the conduct of the study. Dr Powell reported receiving grants from the NIDA and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CD) during the conduct of the study and grants from the NIDA outside the submitted work. Dr Stein reported receiving grants from the National Institutes of Health (NIH) during the conduct of the study and grants from the FORE Foundation outside the submitted work. No other disclosures were reported.
Funding/Support: This study was supported by grants P50DA046351 (Dr Stein), R01DA045800-01 (principal investigator [PI], Dr Stein), and R01CE02999 (PI, Dr Powell) from the CDC.
Role of the Funder/Sponsor: The sponsor had no role in the design and conduct of the study; collection, management, analysis, and interpretation of the data; preparation, review, or approval of the manuscript; and decision to submit the manuscript for publication.
Disclaimer: The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the NIH or NIDA.
Additional Contributions: Russell Hanson, BA, BS (RAND Corporation), assisted with the preparation of the data set used in this study. He received no financial compensation beyond his RAND salary.