Accepted for Publication: July 11, 2023.
Published Online: August 7, 2023. doi:10.1001/jama.2023.14217
Corresponding Author: Nigam H. Shah, MBBS, PhD, Center for Biomedical Informatics Research, Stanford University, 3180 Porter Dr, Palo Alto, CA 94305 (nigam@stanford.edu).
Author Contributions: Dr Shah had full access to all of the data in the study and takes responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis.
Concept and design: All authors.
Drafting of the manuscript: Shah, Pfeffer.
Critical review of the manuscript for important intellectual content: All authors.
Administrative, technical, or material support: Entwistle, Pfeffer.
Supervision: Pfeffer.
Conflict of Interest Disclosures: Dr Shah reported being a co-founder of Prealize Health (a predictive analytics company) and Atropos Health (an on-demand evidence generation company). No other disclosures were reported.
Additional Contributions: We acknowledge the members of the data science team at Stanford Health Care for helpful discussions to refine the arguments made in this article. We acknowledge Jason Fries, PhD, and Alison Callahan, PhD (both with Stanford University), for help in creating the first draft of the Figure; they were not compensated for their contributions.